17772 Last modified December 26, 2012

Unified Field Theory
From a Different Perspective

Willis H. Thompson, B.S., B.A., M.A.T.
Professor Emeritus, Natural Sciences
San Diego State University
San Diego, CA 92182

Gravity

added by Vernon Brown
on
July 1, 2012

The constants of empty space, Permittivity and permeability are only constants in the absence of electric and magnetic charge. Charge increases the affect of the constants to increase impedance. Greater impedance slows the speed of light. The path of light must bend toward greater impedance. Comprised of light, massive objects must gravitate toward greater impedance of space.

The gold button link explains more fully.

Abstract

In this paper the authors put forth a major new theory about the three basic particles -- the electron, proton and neutron. The theory, called the Photon Theory, is an effort to achieve a Unified Field Theory that Einstein and his colleagues pursued, that theory explaining mass, gravity, and the nuclear forces in terms of electromagnetic waves.

The main ideas of the paper are:

1) An electron is created when a gamma ray of very high frequency interacts with a similar ray under a minimum energy condition. The gamma ray is bent so strongly that it forms a stable resonating circle. An equation to find the diameter of the electron from its mass is derived from three other basic equations. The diameter of the electron is found to be several orders of magnitude larger than previously accepted.

2) In terms of electron mass taken equal to unity, by the Photon Theory, the total mass of the proton and that of the neutron are found to agree with past measurements; however, there are two new inner photon shells in each of the particles which have not been acknowledged or named.

3) The charge of an electron develops from asymmetry when the photon goes into resonance. There is recent experimental evidence of this. Single photons are now trapped in resonant cavities and found to exhibit electric charge.

4) The electromagnetic amplitude available at any one point in space is the maximum value equal to Planck's constant.

5) "Massive" objects are comprised only of photons. The mutual attraction of "masses" is explained.

6) Wave-particle duality is explained as the observation of maxima of waves, which previously have been assumed to be particles. Spacially extended electric and magnetic fields drive saturated points through space. The fields determine the trajectory of the points. Action only happens near the points.

7) A red shift of certain spectrum lines is described by partial absorption of photons, contradicting the part of Quantum Mechanics, which states that only complete photons can be absorbed.

8) The universe is in a steady-state condition- where photons are being continuously changed into mass and vice versa. This opposes the expansion theory of the universe (the "big bang"). However, it is not the same as The Hoyle Steady-State Theory, wherein mass is created from nothing.

9) Ultimately, all mass and energy are effects of the time variant cause, photon action. This does not allow the existence of a massive neutrino. Neutrinos must be mass less.

10) The theory exhibits complementarity with Einstein's principle of special relativity except Postulate 2 (inertial frame of reference) and complementarity with Quantum Mechanics except for the item referred in (7) above.

Historical Background

As early as 1864 James Clerk Maxwell suggested that not only light, but all mass as well, might he described in terms of electromagnetic fields alone. This was discussed in Albert Einstein's article, "Physics and Reality," which first appeared in the "Journal of the Franklin Institute," in the March issue of 1936.

Einstein described several electromagnetic theories of matter advanced by H.A. Lorentz and Heinrich Hertz, as well as Maxwell, which were inadequate because they could never quite explain the inertial properties of mass with Maxwell's partial differential equations.

Einstein summed up by agreeing that the theory was a possible reality, but added, "What appears certain to me, however, is that, in the foundations of any consistent field theory, the particle concept must not appear in addition to the field concept."

H.A. Lorentz advanced a theory that avoided the problem in Maxwell's equations. His theory explained the most fundamental components of mass using only Maxwell's equations, but the theory was finally abandoned because it required the concept of particles. Einstein pointed out that the theory also failed to explain the tremendous forces which hold the electric charges on the individual particles.

If the most fundamental structures of mass were electromagnetic only, the components of the structure, must always move at the speed of light. Maxwell's equations and observed reality must have it so. This did not fit into the theory of relativity. If the most fundamental structure of mass moved in patterns at the speed of light, relativity would be a natural result. Mass would necessarily be related to the speed of light, just as was observed. This was shown by .A. Lorentz and set down in equations that became widely known as the Lorentz transformations.

Reality could be classical mass and relative space-time (as Albert Einstein assumed) or it could be relative mass and classical space and time. Both assumptions worked equally well to explain observation, as was shown by Lorentz. (See Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction theory)

Einstein could have chosen either idea in his 1905 paper on special relativity, but he chose relative space-time. One of his two postulates of special relativity was that there was no special inertial frame of reference. His second postulate was that light of any wavelength always traveled at a constant speed in any inertial frame of reference. These postulates immediately introduced several ideas which were not in accord with reality as experienced by the average educated person--a limit to signals of any kind, increasing mass of a high speed object, shortening of a high speed object, no inertial reference from which to measure the movement of objects, time dilation, etc.

In 1955 Arno A. Penzias and Robert W. Wilson of Bell Laboratories made a discovery which supported classical space and time. They discovered that there was a 3 degrees Kelvin background radiation coming down on Earth from all directions. This radiation seemed to be Doppler shifted slightly toward the blue in the direction of the constellation Leo, and slightly toward the red in the opposite direction. The amount of shift indicated that the earth and all the surrounding galaxies were moving through the background toward the constellation Leo at about 500 miles per second.

This implied that there might exist a special inertial frame of reference--the background radiation--that could be considered to be at rest in space. If this were true, it would falsify Einstein's major assumption in his theory of relativity. It would imply that it really was the fundamental structure of the mass and not the fundamental structure of space and time that caused the observed relativistic effects.

According to Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism, energy propagated into space when a charged particle accelerated (decelerated). The energy moved away from its source in a straight line at the speed of light. As the light (later named a photon) passed through a volume of space, an electric field was created which went from zero to maximum to zero again, then to maximum in the opposite polarity, and then back to zero. The changing electric field E instantaneously created a magnetic field of the same wave shape, except that it was rotated about the line of motion by 90 degrees.

The changing magnetic field induces a new electric field along the line of travel of the light and this coupling action continues without loss of energy. Without interference, this wave could theoretically continue in a straight line to infinity. Physicists of the time asked an obvious question: "What is the medium through which a light wave is traveling?" In 1887 Michelson and Morley's experiment to measure the speed of the earth through the medium (the "ether") found that there was no need for a medium.

Max Planck in 1900 contended that heat energy could not be emitted from a radiating body continuously, but only in discrete packets called quanta (singular: quantum). He found the value of this small amount of energy-time (h) to be 6.5252 x 10^-34 Joule sec.

Niels Bohr applied the quantum idea successfully to electron transitions in the hydrogen atom to explain spectral lines, which had been observed for several years. According to his theory, light was emitted from the hydrogen atom when an electron moved toward the center of the atom (lost energy) an integral number of quanta. The wave length (color) of the light emitted was given by the equation:

E - hv

or v - E/h

Where E is the energy of position lost by the electron--and v is the frequency (Hertz) of the light.

From here on the theory by Brown will be referred to as Photon Theory to distinguish it from the Unified Field Theory of Einstein and his colleagues. If it is accepted by the scientific community, then it might be appropriate in honor of Einstein's many years of work in this area to rename Photon Theory, "Unified Field Theory."

PHOTON THEORY

Photon Theory claims that photons comprise all mass. It follows the rule of complementarity, in that it is consistent with the principles of relativity, except that it explains relativity from a different approach. It attempts to simplify and unify, having no exotic conditions such as black holes, the "Big Bang", "Worm Holes" into other universes, wave-particle duality or traveling backward in time. The phenomena of mass, size of particles, charge of particles, gravity, and inertia are described in terms of electric and magnetic activity alone.

The main statement of the theory is that photons comprise all mass. Another way of saying it is that electromagnetic waves cause mass and gravity, as well as light, radio and radiant heat.

Formation of the Electron:

When two gamma-ray photons pass very close their fields interfere, bending the paths of the photons. This interference can cause a complete loop to occur. At one certain frequency, an electron-positron pair can be formed when photons curl so that they complete a front-to-back transition in one wave length.

Anatomy of an Electron

An electron is a single photon trapped in a self resonant loop. The photon's negative field is always toward the outside because it completes its negative to positive sinusoidal swing as it completes its sine-function-governed circle. The other particles, shown to scale, are comprised of electron-like shells. They are smaller because they are more massive. More massive means more energy which equates to a shorter wavelength.

In order for the electron to exist with atomic nuclei without losing energy, it must engulf the nucleus. Protons find equilibrium between the positively charged inside of the electron's shell and the positively charged outer surface of the proton's shell.

Electric and magnetic fields emitted from a photon on a curved path are asymmetric. The field on the outside of the curve must necessarily be larger than the field on the inside. This causes an electric charge. The amplitude of the charge is greatest at the radius of the curve.

When photons complete one loop in one wave length they are in resonance. This resonance and the electric charge caused by the bend in their paths provide the force that lock photons in stable loops. They remain in the loops until some force great enough to overcome the force of their resonance and charge comes to bear.

Size of the Electron

An electron consists of a one-photon loop. The circumference of any one-photon particle is the wavelength of a photon whose energy is equal to the mass of the particle. Size may thus be calculated with the equation:

d = h / pi * mc.

Where d is diameter in centimeters h is Planck's constant in erg-sec. m is mass in grams and c is the speed of light in centimeters per second. (Equation derivation is below)

Size of other Particles:

Protons are composed of three one-photon loops whose diameters conform to the above equation. Neutrons are made of four; the three of the proton, plus one extra outside shell.

If the mass of the neutron's outer shell is 2.5499146 electron masses, it begins a square-of-the-shells sequence which determines the mass of the three inside shells (See Mass of Particles below) and the size of the inside shells, using the equation.

Source Code
Click for larger image

Robert Hofstadter of Stanford probed for nuclear structure using electron beams on the order of 600 Mev. That amount of power should punch right through the outer shells and bounce off the inner most shell. Experiments that use less energetic probes should produce more accurate results.

Shell structure of a proton. The outside shell is comparatively weak and does not scatter electrons to the extent that two inside shells do. Like fields oppose each other keeping each outer shell equidistant from the next inner shell. The inner most shell is too small to show up at the scale of the image below.

Proton construct

According to the Photon Theory, all mass is comprised of photons trapped in loops by self-resonance and charge. Only loops of certain circumference are stable. The mass of the neutron's outer shell (1 on Figure 3) is 2.5499 electron masses. The proton's outer shell (2 on Figure3) is the square of 2.5499 = 6.5021. The next smaller shell (3) has a mass of 6.5021 squared or 42.2773 and the final shell (4) a mass of 42.2773 squared or 1787.37 electron masses.

The strength of the electric charge follows the mass value because we set the electron mass to unity.

The sum of shells 2, 3 and 4 is the proton's total mass, and the sum of shells 1, 2, 3 and 4 is the neutron's total mass (in electron masses). In summary the masses of the three elemental particles are:
Electron = 1 electron mass
Proton = 1,836.1521 electron masses
Neutron = 1,838.7020 electron masses

Charge

All loops composed of one photon must exhibit electric charge which emanates from asymmetry in the photon's bent path. Electric and magnetic fields emitted from a photon on a curved path are asymmetric in that the field on the outside of the curve occupies more area than the field on the inside. This asymmetry shows up as an electric charge, the amplitude of which is inversely proportional to the square of the radius of the bent path. Charge equal to that of an electron occurs when the electron is in resonance at a bend of radius equal to 3.8 x 10^-11 cm.