The great change was brought about by Faraday, Maxwell and Hertz-as a equations was Maxwellian theory. Yet toward the end of his short life he was the work of Maxwell. Imagine his feelings when the differential decades to grasp the full significance of Maxwell's discovery, so bold was Maxwell's electromagnetic waves, did resistance to the new theory break electrically charged body in motion must, according to Maxwell's theory, Maxwell's theory could not accomplish such a program. Since then For several decades most physicists clung to the conviction that a mechanical substructure would be found for Maxwell's theory. But the unsatisfactory results of their efforts led to gradual acceptance of the new field fact that Maxwell's equations (and thus the law of propagation of light in undergo Lorentz transformation. This formal property of the Maxwell laws of Maxwellian electrodynamics. To arrive at results consistent with the The great change was brought about by Faraday, Maxwell and Hertz-as a equations was Maxwellian theory. Yet toward the end of his short life he was the work of Maxwell. Imagine his feelings when the differential decades to grasp the full significance of Maxwell's discovery, so bold was Maxwell's electromagnetic waves, did resistance to the new theory break electrically charged body in motion must, according to Maxwell's theory, Maxwell's theory could not accomplish such a program. Since then For several decades most physicists clung to the conviction that a mechanical substructure would be found for Maxwell's theory. But the unsatisfactory results of their efforts led to gradual acceptance of the new field fact that Maxwell's equations (and thus the law of propagation of light in undergo Lorentz transformation. This formal property of the Maxwell laws of Maxwellian electrodynamics. To arrive at results consistent with the The great change was brought about by Faraday, Maxwell and Hertz-as a equations was Maxwellian theory. Yet toward the end of his short life he was the work of Maxwell. Imagine his feelings when the differential decades to grasp the full significance of Maxwell's discovery, so bold was Maxwell's electromagnetic waves, did resistance to the new theory break electrically charged body in motion must, according to Maxwell's theory, Maxwell's theory could not accomplish such a program. Since then chanical substructure would be found for Maxwell's theory. But the un- fact that Maxwell's equations (and thus the law of propagation of light in undergo Lorentz transformation. This formal property of the Maxwell laws of Maxwellian electrodynamics. To arrive at results consistent with the Maxwell and Lorentz were correct. Furthermore, the assumption that these Maxwell and Lorentz were correct. Furthermore, the assumption that these Maxwell and Lorentz were correct. Furthermore, the assumption that these The special theory of relativity is an adaptation of physical principles to Maxwell-Lorentz electrodynamics. relativity principle). From Maxwell-Lorentz electrodynamics it takes the postulate of invariance of the elementary structures of matter. The Maxwellian field equations can readily be adopted into the general contain no differential quotients of gp." higher than the first, and that in the customary Maxwellian form they electromagnetic terms in a manner specified by the Maxwellian equations so that they contain the The special theory of relativity is an adaptation of physical principles to Maxwell-Lorentz electrodynamics. relativity principle). From Maxwell-Lorentz electrodynamics it takes the postulate of invariance of the elementary structures of matter. The Maxwellian field equations can readily be adopted into the general contain no differential quotients of gp." higher than the first, and that in the customary Maxwellian form they electromagnetic terms in a manner specified by the Maxwellian equations so that they contain the The special theory of relativity is an adaptation of physical principles to Maxwell-Lorentz electrodynamics. relativity principle). From Maxwell-Lorentz electrodynamics it takes the postulate of invariance of the elementary structures of matter. The Maxwellian field equations can readily be adopted into the general contain no differential quotients of gp." higher than the first, and that in the customary Maxwellian form they electromagnetic terms in a manner specified by the Maxwellian equations so that they contain the the introduction of the undulation theory likely consists of Maxwell's themselves, as atomistically constituted, and therefore to give up Maxwell's vacuum could then still be explained by Maxwell's equations. the introduction of the undulation theory likely consists of Maxwell's themselves, as atomistically constituted, and therefore to give up Maxwell's vacuum could then still be explained by Maxwell's equations. themselves, as atomistically constituted, and therefore to give up Maxwell's vacuum could then still be explained by Maxwell's equations. rather empirical task. Many contemporaries of Maxwell saw in such a of Faraday and Maxwell represents probably the most profound transformation which has been experienced by the foundations of physics since bodies are introduced into it. The differential equations of Maxwell connect To be sure, Maxwell still tried to interpret his field theory mechanically Newton's mechanics and Maxwell's field theory. The weakness of this theory partial differential equations (Maxwell's field equations for the electromagnetic partial differential equations. The Maxwell equations in modification of Maxwell's equations. These attempts have, however, not probably the reason why the molecular theory, and Maxwell's theory were The successes of the Maxwell-Lorentz theory have given great confidence This theory is compatible with the equations of Maxwell; but, it is in- There is no difficulty in connecting Maxwell's theory of the electromagnetic field with the theory of the gravitational field so long as one restricts himself to space, free of ponderable matter and free of electric space and to associate with the so modified system of equations the Maxwell pure Maxwell theory. electrostatics is deducible from the Maxwell equations of the elec- rather empirical task. Many contemporaries of Maxwell saw in such a of Faraday and Maxwell represents probably the most profound transformation which has been experienced by the foundations of physics since bodies are introduced into it. The differential equations of Maxwell connect To be sure, Maxwell still tried to interpret his field theory mechanically Newton's mechanics and Maxwell's field theory. The weakness of this theory partial differential equations (Maxwell's field equations for the electromagnetic partial differential equations. The Maxwell equations in modification of Maxwell's equations. These attempts have, however, not probably the reason why the molecular theory, and Maxwell's theory were The successes of the Maxwell-Lorentz theory have given great confidence This theory is compatible with the equations of Maxwell; but, it is in- There is no difficulty in connecting Maxwell's theory of the electromagnetic field with the theory of the gravitational field so long as one restricts himself to space, free of ponderable matter and free of electric space and to associate with the so modified system of equations the Maxwell pure Maxwell theory. electrostatics is deducible from the Maxwell equations of the elec- rather empirical task. Many contemporaries of Maxwell saw in such a of Faraday and Maxwell represents probably the most profound trans- bodies are introduced into it. The differential equations of Maxwell connect To be sure, Maxwell still tried to interpret his field theory mechanically Newton's mechanics and Maxwell's field theory. The weakness of this theory partial differential equations (Maxwell's field equations for the electromagnetic partial differential equations. The Maxwell equations in modification of Maxwell's equations. These attempts have, however, not probably the reason why the molecular theory, and Maxwell's theory were The successes of the Maxwell-Lorentz theory have given great confidence This theory is compatible with the equations of Maxwell; but, it is in- There is no difficulty in connecting Maxwell's theory of the electro- space and to associate with the so modified system of equations the Maxwell pure Maxwell theory. electrostatics is deducible from the Maxwell equations of the elec- Einstein comments about James Clerk Maxwell On the one hundredth anniversary of Maxwell's birth. Published, 1931, in James Clerk Maxwell: A Commemoration Volume, Cambridge University Press. The greatest change in the axiomatic basis of physics-in other words, of our conception of the structure of reality-since Newton laid the foundation of theoretical physics was brought about by Faraday's and Maxwell's work on electromagnetic phenomena. We will try in what follows to make this clearer, keeping both earlier and later developments in sight. still tried to explain all events as the motion of inert masses; indeed no other way of looking at things seemed conceivable. Then came the great change, which will be associated for all time with the names of Faraday, Maxwell, and Hertz. The lion's share in this revolution fell to Maxwell. He showed that the whole of what was then known about light and electromagnetic phenomena was expressed in his well-known double system of differential equations, in which the electric and the magnetic fields appear as the dependent variables. Maxwell did, indeed, try to explain, or justify, these equations by the intellectual construction of a mechanical model. the possibility, of a mechanical explanation of Maxwell's with the help of Maxwell's theory, an attempt which did not, Neglecting the important individual results which Maxwell's life- the nature of physical reality, we may say this: before Maxwell differential equations. After Maxwell they conceived physical and the Maxwellian. For the quantities which figure in its laws Maxwellian-namely, the description of physical reality in terms of means of which Faraday and Maxwell put physics on a. new basis. finishing touch to the mighty intellectual edifice of Maxwell and It is a particular pleasure to me to have the privilege of speak-ing in the capital of the country from which the most important fundamental notions of theoretical physics have issued. I am thinking of the theory of mass motion and gravitation which Newton gave us and the concept of the electromagnetic field, by means of which Faraday and Maxwell put physics on a. new basis. The theory of relativity may indeed be said to have put a sort of finishing touch to the mighty intellectual edifice of Maxwell and Lorentz, inasmuch as it seeks to extend field physics to all phenomena, gravitation included. arrive at Maxwell's equations for empty space. In order to justify this confidence, I am compelled to make use of a mathematical concept. The physical world is repre-sented as a four-dimensional continuum. If I assume a Rie-mannian metric in it and ask what are the simplest laws which such a metric can satisfy, I arrive at the relativistic theory of gravitation in empty space. If in that space I assume a vector-field or an anti-symmetrical tensor-field which can be derived from it, and ask what are the simplest laws which such a field can satisfy, I arrive at Maxwell's equations for empty space. The great change was brought about by Faraday, Maxwell and Hertz-as a equations was Maxwellian theory. Yet toward the end of his short life he was the work of Maxwell. Imagine his feelings when the differential decades to grasp the full significance of Maxwell's discovery, so bold was Maxwell's electromagnetic waves, did resistance to the new theory break electrically charged body in motion must, according to Maxwell's theory, Maxwell's theory could not accomplish such a program. Since then For several decades most physicists clung to the conviction that a mechanical substructure would be found for Maxwell's theory. But the unsatisfactory results of their efforts led to gradual acceptance of the new field fact that Maxwell's equations (and thus the law of propagation of light in undergo Lorentz transformation. This formal property of the Maxwell laws of Maxwellian electrodynamics. To arrive at results consistent with the The great change was brought about by Faraday, Maxwell and Hertz-as a equations was Maxwellian theory. Yet toward the end of his short life he was the work of Maxwell. Imagine his feelings when the differential decades to grasp the full significance of Maxwell's discovery, so bold was Maxwell's electromagnetic waves, did resistance to the new theory break electrically charged body in motion must, according to Maxwell's theory, Maxwell's theory could not accomplish such a program. Since then For several decades most physicists clung to the conviction that a mechanical substructure would be found for Maxwell's theory. But the unsatisfactory results of their efforts led to gradual acceptance of the new field fact that Maxwell's equations (and thus the law of propagation of light in undergo Lorentz transformation. This formal property of the Maxwell laws of Maxwellian electrodynamics. To arrive at results consistent with the The great change was brought about by Faraday, Maxwell and Hertz-as a equations was Maxwellian theory. Yet toward the end of his short life he was the work of Maxwell. Imagine his feelings when the differential decades to grasp the full significance of Maxwell's discovery, so bold was Maxwell's electromagnetic waves, did resistance to the new theory break electrically charged body in motion must, according to Maxwell's theory, Maxwell's theory could not accomplish such a program. Since then chanical substructure would be found for Maxwell's theory. But the un- fact that Maxwell's equations (and thus the law of propagation of light in undergo Lorentz transformation. This formal property of the Maxwell laws of Maxwellian electrodynamics. To arrive at results consistent with the Maxwell and Lorentz were correct. Furthermore, the assumption that these Maxwell and Lorentz were correct. Furthermore, the assumption that these Maxwell and Lorentz were correct. Furthermore, the assumption that these The special theory of relativity is an adaptation of physical principles to Maxwell-Lorentz electrodynamics. relativity principle). From Maxwell-Lorentz electrodynamics it takes the postulate of invariance of the elementary structures of matter. The Maxwellian field equations can readily be adopted into the general contain no differential quotients of gp." higher than the first, and that in the customary Maxwellian form they electromagnetic terms in a manner specified by the Maxwellian equations so that they contain the The special theory of relativity is an adaptation of physical principles to Maxwell-Lorentz electrodynamics. relativity principle). From Maxwell-Lorentz electrodynamics it takes the postulate of invariance of the elementary structures of matter. The Maxwellian field equations can readily be adopted into the general contain no differential quotients of gp." higher than the first, and that in the customary Maxwellian form they electromagnetic terms in a manner specified by the Maxwellian equations so that they contain the The special theory of relativity is an adaptation of physical principles to Maxwell-Lorentz electrodynamics. relativity principle). From Maxwell-Lorentz electrodynamics it takes the postulate of invariance of the elementary structures of matter. The Maxwellian field equations can readily be adopted into the general contain no differential quotients of gp." higher than the first, and that in the customary Maxwellian form they electromagnetic terms in a manner specified by the Maxwellian equations so that they contain the the introduction of the undulation theory likely consists of Maxwell's themselves, as atomistically constituted, and therefore to give up Maxwell's vacuum could then still be explained by Maxwell's equations. the introduction of the undulation theory likely consists of Maxwell's themselves, as atomistically constituted, and therefore to give up Maxwell's vacuum could then still be explained by Maxwell's equations. themselves, as atomistically constituted, and therefore to give up Maxwell's vacuum could then still be explained by Maxwell's equations. rather empirical task. Many contemporaries of Maxwell saw in such a of Faraday and Maxwell represents probably the most profound transformation which has been experienced by the foundations of physics since bodies are introduced into it. The differential equations of Maxwell connect To be sure, Maxwell still tried to interpret his field theory mechanically Newton's mechanics and Maxwell's field theory. The weakness of this theory partial differential equations (Maxwell's field equations for the electromagnetic partial differential equations. The Maxwell equations in modification of Maxwell's equations. These attempts have, however, not probably the reason why the molecular theory, and Maxwell's theory were The successes of the Maxwell-Lorentz theory have given great confidence This theory is compatible with the equations of Maxwell; but, it is in- There is no difficulty in connecting Maxwell's theory of the electromagnetic field with the theory of the gravitational field so long as one restricts himself to space, free of ponderable matter and free of electric space and to associate with the so modified system of equations the Maxwell pure Maxwell theory. electrostatics is deducible from the Maxwell equations of the elec- rather empirical task. Many contemporaries of Maxwell saw in such a of Faraday and Maxwell represents probably the most profound transformation which has been experienced by the foundations of physics since bodies are introduced into it. The differential equations of Maxwell connect To be sure, Maxwell still tried to interpret his field theory mechanically Newton's mechanics and Maxwell's field theory. The weakness of this theory partial differential equations (Maxwell's field equations for the electromagnetic partial differential equations. The Maxwell equations in modification of Maxwell's equations. These attempts have, however, not probably the reason why the molecular theory, and Maxwell's theory were The successes of the Maxwell-Lorentz theory have given great confidence This theory is compatible with the equations of Maxwell; but, it is in- There is no difficulty in connecting Maxwell's theory of the electromagnetic field with the theory of the gravitational field so long as one restricts himself to space, free of ponderable matter and free of electric space and to associate with the so modified system of equations the Maxwell pure Maxwell theory. electrostatics is deducible from the Maxwell equations of the elec- rather empirical task. Many contemporaries of Maxwell saw in such a of Faraday and Maxwell represents probably the most profound trans- bodies are introduced into it. The differential equations of Maxwell connect To be sure, Maxwell still tried to interpret his field theory mechanically Newton's mechanics and Maxwell's field theory. The weakness of this theory partial differential equations (Maxwell's field equations for the electromagnetic partial differential equations. The Maxwell equations in